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STKIP MUHAMMADIYAH BONE
TAHUN AJARAN 2014/2015
LANGUAGE TEACHING
A.
History of Language
Teaching
The history of language
teaching presented has been mostly adapted from Meckey and Richards and
Rodgers. The develovement is presented chronologically so that the history of
language teaching can be easily traced back from the past.
The
history of language teaching presented in this book has been mostly adapted
from Mackey (1975) and Richards and Rodgers (1986 and 2001). The development is
presented chronologically so that the history of language teaching can be
easily traced back from the past. Some ways of teaching foreign languages
adapted from the book are not necessarily methods; they may be simply
collections of some lessons of teaching experiences.
Before
The Nineteenth Century
The
beginning of foreign language teaching might not be separated from the Roman
Empire when the Romans studied Greek as their second language. They studied
Greek by inviting Greek tutors or having Greek-speaking servants in the house
hold. Finally, peoples in Europe began to learn another foreign language and
think about language teaching methods. The first concern with language teaching
method in Europe had to do with teaching of Latin. The emphasis of language
teaching changed by the time. Up to the last quarter of the eighteenth century
the usual practice in schools was to translate from the second language into
the first. Translation way already took the position of teaching grammar. With the coming of the
Grammar Translation Method, the teaching
of Latin grammar had become formalized
an end itself.
At the
beginning of the nineteenth century the teaching of foreign languages was done
by providing language learners with texts based on simple sentence containing
most of the grammatical features of the target language. At the time a foreign
language was taught by using the first language to acquire the foreign
language.
After
The Nineteenth Century
The
language teaching which emphasized grammar and translation was soon criticized
and a new method was introduced. In 1867 Claude Marcel advocated the abolition
of translation and grammar rules and the teaching of language first through
comprehension of texts. At the beginning of the twentieth the direct method had
a definite pattern and the term “Direct Method” was established. The method
maintained the principle that no use of the learners’ language, and reading and
writing came later. The direct method was finally developed in different
directions in different countries.
The New
Era
Teaching
methods are the applications of theoretical findings; they may have developed
from theories and then put into practice. The second half of the twentieth
century has given new language teaching methods. One of the new methods that
has been well known and used internationally is Audio-Lingual Method. Not long
after the emergence of the Audio-Lingual Method, some other new methods have
been developed based on theories of the language and theories of language
teaching or learning. The new methods –to mention some- are the silent way of
Gattegno, the Community Language Learning of Curran, the total physical
Response of Asher, Suggestopedia of Lozanov and Comunicative Language Teaching.
APPROACH, METHOD AND
TECHNIQUE
Approach,
method and technique are the three terms which are often overlapped in language
teaching. People often mention one of them but they refer to another. Even,
people tend to use the term method for all of the three. According to Anthony,
the three have hierarchical arrangement. Approach is the level of theories,
method is the plan of language teaching which is consistent with the theories,
and techniques carry out a method. In other words, the arrangement of the three
is that approach is axiomatic, method is procedural and technique is
implementational.
An
approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language and the nature of language learning and teaching. Approach is the level
at which assumptions and beliefs about language, language learning and language
teaching.
As
stated before, approach is the level of theories and method is the plan of
language teaching that is consistent with the theories. Method should come
after approach because the plan of language teaching should be developed from
theories on the nature of language and language learning. Then, what does the
term “method” mean? “Method” may mean different things to different people
(Mackey, 1975:155). For some, it means a set of teaching procedures; for
others, the avoidance of teaching procedures. For some, it is the primary of a
language skill; for others, it is it is the type and amount of vocabulary and
structure. Different meanings of “Method” can be inferred from the names of the
methods.
A
technique is implementational, meaning that a technique is something that
actually takes place in language teaching or learning in the classroom. All
activities
Before the nineteenth
century, the beginning of foreign language teaching might not be separated from
the roman empirewhen the romans studied Greek as their second language. And
after the nineteenth century, the language teaching which emphasized grammar
and translation was soon citizied and a new method was introduced. And for the
new era, teaching methods are the applications of the theoretical findings;
they may have developed from theories and then put into practice.
The three terms which are
often overlapped in language teaching, people often mention one of them but
they refer to another. A method which is developed based on some assumptions of
an approach, includes the whole plan for the presentation of language
materials.
The procedure of a method
which comprises a set of techniques may not be fixed even though the assumption
of an approach and the basic principles of a methods are relatively fixed.The
teacher role of language learners automatically. When a language teacher is
very dominant, language learners will be less dominant in learning teaching
interaction. Some methods have been citizied for making language learners
stimulus-response mechanisms whose learning is a result of repetition cause one
ef the functions language teacher as organizer in the classroom, the teacher
maintains discipline to the extent that an effective learning atmosphere is
established. It can be done by involving the learners more actively in the
classroom activities that demand intr student communication and cooperative
effort.
B.
English as foreign
language and English as a second language
Some people prefer to
call the former learning English as a foreign and the latter learning English
as assecong language. English is learned in Indonesia by talking about the
grammatical rules of English and errors are always corrected. Each language is
unique and each has its own system. A language is always deffernet from others
even though the language may be similar to some language. A language learner
whose culture is similar to the culture of the target language may find it less
difficult to understand the contex in which the target language is used.
Language
teaching is influenced by ideas on the nature of language (language theories)
and the learning conditions that make learners to acquire the language
(learning theories). A method that is based on the assumption that we learn
another language as a child learns his native language (L1) will differ from
one based on the assumption that learning a foreign language is not the same as
learning a mother tongue. Some people prefer to call the former learning English as a foreign language and
the letter learning English as a second
language.
Linguistic
Process
and progress in learning a target language may depend on (1) how the target
language differs from the mother tongue and (2) how much the mother tongue
interferes with the target language.
Differences
Each
language is unique and each has its own system. A language is always different
from others even though the language may be similar to some languages. The
differences between the target language and mother tongue may be in the realm
of grammar, phonology, vocabulary, stylistics and graphics.
Interference
When
people learn another language, their mother tongue sometimes interferes with
the target language. This phenomenon is often called interference. Interference
is often caused by the similarities between their mother tongue and target
language. How their mother tongue interferes with a new language depends on
whether they are learning to speak the new language or simply they are learning
to understand the language by listening and reading.
Social
Since
language is essentially social phenomenon, the social influence on language
learning are numerous and interrelated in complex ways. There are some contacts
that are classified under social factors that influence the process of language
learning; they are home, community, occupation, school, religious meeting,
radio/television, and reading matters.
Psychological
Second
(foreign) language learners can differ in many ways. Skehan (1989:4) states
some of the psychological differences of learners include age, intelligence,
aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, and cognitive styles.
Motivation
The
role of motivation in learning a foreign language is not in question; many
studies of the relationship between motivation and language achievement, for
example, Lukmani (1972) and Olshtain et al. Gardner and Lambert classify
motivation in learning a foreign language under two types. The first is
integrative motivation, motivation to integrate to another culture, and the
second is instrumental motivation, motibation to acquire a language as a means
for attaining instrumental goals.
Attitude
Many
studies on attitude have referred to the findings of Thurstone’s study
conducted in 1946. Attitude is a relatively constant system of evaluative
process towards an object (s) based on what individuals have learned in
previous settings. Related to teaching English as a second/foreign language
there may be three types of attitude: 1) attitudes to English, 2) attitudes to
English as a subject to be learned, and 3) attitudes to native speakers of
English.(Setyadi,1999).
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD AND DIRECT METHOD
A.
Background of grammar
translation method
The first concern with language teaching
method had to do with the teaching of latin and Greek grammars. The methods
used at that time were mostly design to enable people to speak, read and write
Latin. All the methods were related to the methods which was populary known as
the Garmmar method. With the invention of printing the reproduction of Greek
and Latinclassics become easyand therefore the grammar methods was no longer
effective to teach the languages. Karl Plotz also improved the teaching
methods; his methods was divided into two parts : 1. Rules and paradigms 2.
Sentences for translation into and out of the target language.
Language materials are arranged based on
grammar of English. Usually the sequence of the teaching mterials is based on
the easiness of the rules. It grammatical syllabus is graded from the easy
grammatical rules to more difficult ones. Very little teaching is done in the
target language. Eventhough reading text are written in the tagrgat language
and the translated directly into the mother tongue, thr discussion is conducted
in the mother tongue.vocabulary is the target language is learned through
direct translation from the native language.
Language learners are not expected to be able
to use the target language for communication. The way of teaching also affects
to way of evaluating students learning. Evaluating or testing of the learners
is done almost exclusively through translation. Or language learners are
prepared to have grammar test only.
The
first concern with language teaching of Latin and Greek grammars. The method
used at the time were mostly to enable people to speak, read and write Latin.
All of the methods were related to the method which was popularly known as the
Grammar Method. The principles of the GTM are these:
1.
Grammar rules are presented and studied explicitly.
2.
The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing.
3.
Hardly any attention is paid to speaking and listening skills.
4.
Teacher correction is the only wayto make student produce the
right forms of the foreign language.
5.
The goal of foreign language learning is the ability to
understand texts written in the foreign language.
6.
Mastering the grammar of the foreign language is essential in
order for students to understand the written target language.
7.
Vocabulary is learnt from bilingual word lists.
8.
The mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction.
9.
A paramount use of translation exercise is given.
B.
Procedures of grammar
translation method
Prator and Murcia list the major
characterictics of the GTM as follows :
1.
Classes are taught in the
mother tongue with little active use of the target language.
2.
Much vocabulary is taught
in the form of lists of isolated words
3.
Long elaborated
explaination of the inticacies of grammer are given
4.
Grammar provides the
rules for putting words togather and instruction often focuses on the form and
inflection of words
5.
Reading of difficult
classical texts is begun early
6.
Little attention is paid
to the content of text
7.
Often the only drill are
exercises in translating disconnected sentenst from the target language into
the mother tongue
8.
Little or no attention is
given to pronounciation
9.
The focus is on accuracy
and not fluency
The following procedures of teaching the target language through
the GTM is adapted from Larsen-Freeman (2000:15-17).
1.
The class reads a text written in the target language.
2.
Students translate the passage from the target language to their
mother tongue.
3.
The teacher asks students in their native language if they have
any questions, students ask questions and the teacher answers the questions in
their native language.
4.
Students write out the answer to reading comprehension question.
5.
Students translate new words from the target language to their
mother tongue.
6.
Students are given a grammar rule and based on the example they
apply the rule by using the new words.
7.
Students memorize the vocabulary.
8.
The teacher asks students to state the grammar rule.
9.
Students memorize the rule.
10.
Errors are corrected by providing the right answers.
The characteristics mentioned above are
not a set of procedures of the GTM. Language
teacher may developtheir own procedures as long as they are in accordance with
the characteristics of the GTM.
Even though the GTM is regarded an old method,
the method is still widely used in Indonesia, particulary at schools in the
rural places. Some English teachers still like to teach English through the
GTM. It seems that they prefer to use the method to other well devolped methods
because it is easier to present language materials in classroom and the evaluate
the process of the language teaching. Classroom management is also not a
problem since language teachers can teach English to a class of 40 students
sitting rows.
C.
Background of direct
method
The direct method is a method of language
teaching associated. The method come about as much needed replacement for the
grammar, Translation method. the history of the method took a long way before
it has its relatively typicall features. At firs the method was given different
names in defferent countries and te sort of teaching engendered by the direct
method was qute different among the countries.
A long before direct method was widely used
there were a lot of reactions against the teching of grammar through
explanation and translation. One of the first extreme reaction was the idea
that the target language was taught throught inductive grammar by using texts
written in the target language.
The
Direct Method is a method of language teaching associated with Francois Gouin
and Charles Berlitz. The method came about as much needed replacement for the
Grammar Translation Method.
Principles of direct method :
1.
Grammar is taught by
situation and through inductive process
2.
The syllabus is based on
situations and related to every day vocabulary and structure
3.
Grammar and vocabulary is
taught orally
4.
Conrette meanings are
madeclear by presenting physical objects and abstract ones through association
of ideas not through translation
5.
Repetition of new
materialsis encouraged to make language learners acquire the language naturally
6.
Listening and imitating
sounds are drilled so that language learners become automatic in producing the
sounds
7.
Language learners learn
the target language in the class most of the time
8.
Sounds of the language
are essential and presented at the beginning of the course
9.
Reading follows listening
and speaking and the reading texts are based on the materials of the two skills
10.
Many new items are
presented in the same lesson in order to make the language natural
D.
Basic assumtions about
language
Even thought the theory of language in the
direct method is not explicitly, articulated, in this chapter the assumptions
about language underlyingthe method have been cryztalizzed from different
sources.
As long as the target language spoken by yhe
language learners is undertood by others, the language, the language spoken is
accepted. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. If language learners do not
understood some words, the language techer will demonstrate in the target
language to make the students understand the meanings through pictures, mimics
or other physical objects. Pronounciation is essential since mispronouncing a
new word may hinder communication. Grammar is learnedafter the learners are
able to use the language; this leads to grammar teaching in an inductive way.
The teacher should provided many examples so that the students can draw
conclutions from the examples. There is no explicit grammar rule given by the
teacher but vocabulary exercises and systematics grammar drills may be given.
Even though a theory of language in the Direct Method is not
explicitly articulated, in this chapter the assumptions about language
underlying the method have been crystallized from different sources
(Larsen-Freeman, 2000 and Mackey, 1975). In the Direct Method language is seen
as what native speakers speak so that language learners not only learn the
target language but also the culture of the native speakers.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
The following are basic assumptions about language learning of
the Direct Method:
1.
Meanings are made clear by presenting physical objects, such as
pictures, gestures, and pantomimes.
2.
Self-correction is more emphasized than teacher correction.
3.
Vocabulary is learned more effectively if they use it in full
sentence rather than memorize it.
4.
Teaching another language means taking a role as partner of the
students in communications.
5.
Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as
possible.
6.
Students should be actively involved in using the target
language in realistic everyday situations.
PROCEDURES OF DIRECT
METHOD
The
following procedure is adapted from Larsen-Freeman (2000:26-28):
1.
Each student has a reading passage in front of him/her.
2.
The students are called on one by one and they read the text
loudly.
3.
After the students finish reading the passage, they are asked in
the target language if they have questions.
4.
The teacher answers the students’ questions in the target
language.
5.
The teacher works with the students on the pronunciation.
6.
The teacher gives questions to the students and the questions
and statements are about the students in the classroom.
7.
The students make up their own questions and statements and
direct them to other students in the classroom.
8.
The teacher instructs the students to turn to an exercise in the
lesson which asks them to fill in the blanks.
9.
The students read a sentence out loud and supply the missing
word as they are reading.
10.
The teacher asks the students to take out their notebooks and he/she
gives them a dictation; the passage is about the topic that has been discussed.
AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD
The audio lingual method ALM is a method which
was introduced in the USA in 1940S. eventhough the method is considered very
all, many language teachers still like it and believe that it is a powerfull
method. The emergence of the method was respons to the need for radical change
of foreign language teaching due to the unfriendly relationship between USA and
Rusia, which Lunced its first satelit in 1957. The unite state prevented from
its people from be coming isolated people from scientific advances made in
other countries.
The method was finally developed from the
combination of the principles of structural linguistic theory, constractive
analysis, aural- oral procedure, and behaviouris psychology.
Principles of audio
lingual method derive from the aims of learning a foreign language. The aims of
the method include some aspects og language learnin. The linguistic aims of the
ALM are :
1.
Language learners are
able to comperhandthe foreign language when it is spoken at normal speed and
concernd with ordinary matters
2.
Language learners are
able to speak in acceptable pronounciation and grammatical correctness
3.
Language learners have no
difficulties in comprehending printed materials
4.
Language ;earners are
able to write with acceptable standards of correctness o topics within their
eperince.
Beside the linguistic
aims above the method also has cultural aims
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE
With regard to the nature of language the ALM has some
assumptions. The method sees the language as follows:
1)
Language is the everyday
spoken utterance of the average person at normal speed. It seems that language
is what people speak not what people write. This assumption may be a response
to how people used to study a foreign language.
2)
Listening and speaking come
first, and reading and writing come later. This assumption seems to be inspired
by the process of a child who learns his/her mother tongue.
3)
Every speaker uses a
language in a slightly different manner.
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT
LANGUAGE LEARNING
The method also has assumptions about language learning. The
following are some of the assumptions about learning.
1.
Learning is the process
of change in mental and physical behavior induced in living organism. This
assumption implies that language learning is a process of acquiring another set
of speech habit.
2.
Language learners will be
more eager when they like what they do. This assumption emphasizes on the role
of motivation in learning a foreign language.
3.
Language learners must
understand clearly what is involved and required. This is related to
motivation.
4.
Language learners will
learn the target language more readily when they concentrate their attention
more fully.
5.
Language learning is a
process of habit formation.
TEACHING SKILL
The ALM has a relatively complete procedure of presenting
language materials. The method has a set of procedures of teaching each
language skill. The following is the first procedure of teaching the target
language. The procedure can be as follows:
1.
The language teacher
gives a brief summary of the content of the dialogue. The dialogue is not
translated but equivalent translation of key phrases should be given in order
for the language learners to comprehend the dialogue.
2.
The dialogue learners
listen attentively while the teacher reads or recites the dialogue at normal
speed several times.
3.
Repetition of each line
by the language learners in chorus is the next step. Each sentence may be
repeated a half dozens of times, depending on its length and on the alertness
of the language learners.
4.
Repetition is continued
with groups decreasing in size, that is, first the two halves of the class,
then thirds, and then single rows or smaller groups.
5.
Pairs of individual
learners now go to the front of the classroom to act out the dialogue.
TYPES OF PATTERN DRILLS
In order for language learners to practice listening and
speaking, there are a number of different types of pattern drills that can be
used. Language teachers may use one or more than one pattern drill, depending
on what patterns learners have to learn.
1.
Repetition Drill
2.
Substitution Drill
3.
Transformation Drill
4.
Replacement Drill
5.
Response Drill
6.
Cued Response Drill
7.
Rejoinder Drill
8.
Restatement
9.
Completion Drill
10.
Expansion Drill
11.
Contraction Drill
12.
Integration Drill
The aim mentioned above
have basic principles in learning teaching interaction. Since the primary aim
is the ability in communication, language learners and their language teacher
should use the target language at all times. The two other skills are reading
and writing aredefferd until speech is mastered, these skill follow the other
skills reproductive skills. The sequence of learning listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
Assumptions about
language and assumption about language learning have different method and the
process be willing to spend their time for learning and that performance cannot
be achieved.
Teaching skillhas procedure can be as follows
:
1.
The language teacher
gives a brief summary of the contentof the dialogue
2.
The language learners
listen attentively while the teacher reads or recitesthe dialogue at normal
speed several times.
3.
Repetition of each line
by the language learners in chours is the next step
4.
Repetition is continued
with groups descreasing in size, that is firs the two halves of the class
5.
Pairs of individual
learners now go to the front of the classroomto act out the dialogue
Teaching reading will
given as soon as language learners have had sufficient practice in listening
and speaking. There are different types of reading :
a.
Choral reading
b.
Silent reading
c.
Intensive reading
d.
Extensive reading
Teaching writing in the
target language can be introduced shortly after language learners have begun
reading. There are four types of writing :
a.
Imitative writing
b.
Dictation
c.
Guided writing
d.
Controlled writing
SILENT WAY
The silent way is the name of method of language teaching
devised by calebcattegno. He used to be involved. In a mathematics experience
in the use of roads and his series of word charts in the field of language
teaching. The method may not be separated from the use of the roads and word
charts with different colors. Roads are colored woodn’t or plastic stics that
are thin and straight. They are of varying learn
Principles of silent way, has principles deriving from general
education, the method has principles related to learning foreign languages. The
following are some of the principles of the silent way regarding language
learning.
1.
The work requires
language learners to related the linguistic signs to truth that they perceive
with their sense.
2.
Language is not learned
by repeating after a model
3.
Meaning is made clear by
focusing learners perceptions not through translation
4.
Reading is worked on from
the beginning but follows from what language learners already know.
Basic assumption about
language.With regard to the feature of language the silant way has a different
point of view from other contompary methods
1.
Language is seen as
groups of sound arbitrarilyassociatedwithspecific meanings and organized into
sentences or strings of meaningful units by grammar rules
2.
The skills of speaking,
listening, reading and writing reinforce one another.
3.
Language is a substitute
for experience.
Procedures of silant way
begin by introducing the sounds of the target language before attaching them to
meanings to prepare learners to learn the target language. This is infortant
for language learners to be familiar with the sounds since the sounds of a
foreign language sound strange and funny for beginners.
PRINCIPLES OF SILENT WAY
The following are some of the principle of the silent way
regarding to foreign language learning:
1.
The work requires
language learners to relate linguistic signs to truth that the perceive with
their sense.
2.
Language is not learned
by repeating after a model language learners need to develop their own inner criteria for correctness.
3.
Meaning is made clear by
focusing learners perception, not through translation.
4.
Reading is worked on
front the beginning but follows from what language learners already now.
BASIC
ASSUMPTION ABOUT LANGUAGE
With regard to the nature
of language,the Silent Way has a
different point of view from other
contemporary methods.
1.
Language is seen as
groups of sound arbitrarily associated with specific meanings and organized
into sentences or strings of meaningful
units by grammar rules (Richards and Rodgers,1986:101).
2.
The skills of speaking,listening,reading and
writing reinforce one another.Consequently,language teacher has to consider
these four sklills in dealing with the language materials.
3.
Language is a substitude for experience.So,in
this method experience gives meaning to the target language (Richards and
Rodgers,1986:101 and 2001).
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
Besides
the assumptions about language,it is believed that learning take place more
effectively under certain condition.Therefore,the Silent Way also has come
assumptions about language learning.The following are the assumptions about
language learning.
1.
The grammar of the target
language is learned through largerly inductive processes.(Richards and
Rodgers,1986:101 and 2001).Language learners have to find out how the patterns
of the target language work
2.
Language is learned logically,expanding upon
what language learners already know.
3.
Learning is facilitied if language learners discover
or create rather than remember and repeat what is to be learned (Richards and
Rodgers,1986:99 and 2001).
4.
Learning is a continuing and living process.It occurs on a continumm and leads
towards mastery.Advocates of this method believe that learning does not occur
abruptly and thus cannot be evaluated immediately.
PROCEDURE OF SILENT WAY
The silent way procedures begin by introducing the sounds of the target language before
attaching them to meanings to prepare learners to learn the target language.
This is important for language learners to be familiar with the sounds since
the sounds of a foreign language sounds strange and funny for beginners. The
technique can be done by the language teacherand the sounds of recordings of
native speakers. The contents of recordings of the listening materials may
comprise of lecturing, greeting, informal conversation or discussion.
ERROR CORRECTION
In language teaching there are different ways of correcting
learners’ errors in terms of who corrects the errors (Walz, 1982). First, the
learners who made the error; the second, other learners in the class; and the
last the teacher. This way of correcting errors could reduce teacher talk by
one-half. The second way is peer correction. Other learners can involve actively
in the process of correcting. The third way is teacher correction. Eventhough
this way has been avoided in language teaching, many language teachers still
use it. In the silent way the teacher sees error correction as an opportunity
for language learners to learn.
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
BACKGROUND
Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method
introduced and developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Currant was a
specialist in counseling and a professor
of psychology at Loyola University in Chicago.
The concept of community has been used in this method because
when such relationship mentioned above is applied specifically to groups with
the task of learning a second language, a very special kind of community –
involvement result.
THE PRINCIPLES OF CLL
The basic principles of CLL can be
described in processes by which language learners acquire a foreign language.
The processes can be considered as stages in language learning. Stages in
language Counselor-Client relationship from counselor dependency to
independence.
This presumes the client’s greater
confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of
phrases grammar and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member
desires it.
The five stages represent how
language learners leave their dependency and come to their independence. The
stages are the processes in which the knower and the learners interrelate. The
teacher as the knower may provide the conditions for the learners to acquire a
foreign language and at the same time to be involved in learning to communicate
with other people.
The principles of CLL can
be described in processes by which language learners acquire a foreign
language. The processes can be considered as stages in language learning.
Assumption about language
and language lerning : different methods have different assumptions about
language and language learning or teaching. Some methods state the assumptions explicity
and some others do not. In some methods the assumptions are implicity stated.
Procedure of CLL :
preliminary contact, investment (making the recording), reflection
The process of language
teaching teaching above may be summarized in a simple procedure as as presented
in a first day of CLL.
1.
The class begins with an
informal meeting and everyone introduces himself or herself
2.
The knower makes a
statement of the goal and gudelines for the course
3.
Theyform a circle so that
everyone has visual contact with one another and everyone is within easy reach
of the microhone of a tape recorder
4.
A vvolunter student
initiates conversation with other students by giving a message in their mother
tongue.
5.
The knower goes and stand
behind the student, whispers an equivalent translation of the message in the
target language
6.
The student repeats the
message that has been translated into the target language and record his
expressions in a tape recorder etc.
7. Assumptions
About Language And Language Learning
8.
Different methods have different
assumptions about language and language learning or teaching. Some methods
state the assumptions explicitly and some others do not. In some methods the
assumptions are implicitly stated. The assumptions of CLL are not purely
assumptions about language and language learnings the method was not originally
developed for language teaching.
ASSUMPTION ABOUT LANGUAGE
Assumption 1
In CLL the class begins
with conversation in the language of the learners. Language learners really
express what is in their mind and responses from other learners are also
logical and communicative expressions. Language learners do not learn what is
in teacher’s head or what has been developed in syllabus. The procedure above
has been developed from the assumption that language
is purposeful behavior between people, interwined with other kinds of purposive
behavior between the same people (Stevick, 1976).
Assumption 2
La Forge (cited in
Richards and Rodgers, 1986:115-116 and 2001) states that CLL method sees
language as social process, meaning that language is person in contact and in
response. The assumption of CLL about language can be seen from the process of
language teaching. In CLL language is not only used to communicate but also to
deepen intimacy between learners and knower. The “syllabus” may be a
spontaneous syllabus that happen to be the topic of the discussion proposed by
language learners. Language-teachers cannot prepare a teaching material as
expected by other traditional methods.
ASSUMPTION ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
Assumption 1
In CLL language learners are seated in circle and they only face
other language learners, and the knower, who is relatively a stranger to them,
remains outside the group. The knower is the only one around that the language
learners are defending themselves from. This principle can be stated that the human person learns new behavior rapidly
if the learners is not busy defending himself from someone else (Stevick,1976).
Assumption 2
With regard to language
learning, CLL advocates language learning is both cognitive and affective
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 117 and 2001). This assumption suggests that
interaction between learners and knower is central. In CLL the role of a
language teacher is not only to teach a foreign language but also the knower of
the target language that has to maintain learners’ security. This assumption
can be traced back to whole-person
learning (Curran, 1977).
Assumption 3
Referring to the
whole-person learning, CLL advocates believe that language learning will take
place if language learners maintain their feeling of security. This assumption
can be seen from how knower behaves in the classroom as discussed in the
procedure section. The knower always maintains learners’ security during the
learning process. This calls for creativity of language teachers since
different cultures sometimes expect different behaviors from teachers in order
to keep learners’ security.
PROCEDURE OF CLL
Curran does not provide explicitly
the procedure of teaching a foreign language through CLL. Some practitioners in
teaching foreign languages suggest different procedures (Stevick, 1980,
Stroingg, 1980, and Dutra, 1980, Larsen-Freeman, 1986 and 2000). The procedure
introduced here was also adapted from Stevick’ work (1980: 149).
Preliminary Contact
Stevick was the knower of Swihili
language. He introduced and talked with the whole class in the evening after
his arrival from Hawaii. Some students of Master of Art in Teaching at School
for International Training where chosen to be language learners in his Swihili
class. In the following morning the knower began the class by reminding the
students the first step in the procedure. This was considered important as the
class would begin by recording the learners’ voice and this was not common in
language class.
Investment: making the recording
The 12 learners were seated on
simple metal folding chairs arranged in a tight circle. The other students of
the program were standing outside the circle, watching the class. On the floor
in the center of the circle was a cassette tape recorder with a start-stop
switch on microphone. The knower said that the learners who had something to
say signaled that fact by raising his/her hand and taking the microphone in
his/her hand. The learners talked one another and said something in English.
And then the knower gave equivalent expressions in Swahili language. Some
learners recorded the expressions by Chunks as they could not remember the
whole expressions. The knower spoke a part of the expressions and they spoke
the part and recorded it. By doing this way, the recording was entirely the
voice of the learners and entirely in the target language.
Reflection: Listening to the tape and writing the conversation down
The knower and learners then
listened to the tape, once without interruption, and once stopping after each
sentence for the learners to recall the general meaning of the sentence. Then,
the knower and learners played the tape again and the knower wrote down on
blackboard. The knower put English literal translation under the Swahili
expressions. The knower did not want the learners to make a copy of the written
expressions.
Discrimination: passive listening and writing sentences
The knower then read the sentences
and asked the learners not to read the written expressions on the blackboard.
The knower read each sentence three times. First, he read every word and
literally translated the word into English. The second reading was animated and
read as in actual conversation. The third reading was read in positive and
optimistic tone of voice.
Reflection
After a break, the knower told the
learners that he was going to talk to them in Swahili for a few minutes. It was
a monologue and there would be no questions and answers between the knower and
learners.
The process of
language teaching above may be summarized in a simple procedure as presented in
a first day of CLL class by Dieter Stroinigg (in Stevick: 185-6).
1.
The class begins with an informal meeting and everyone
introduces himself or herself.
2.
The knower makes a statement of the goal and guidelines for the
course.
3.
They form a circle so that everyone has visual contact with one
another and everyone is within easy reach of the microphone of a tape recorder.
4.
A volunteer student initiates conversation with other students
by giving a message in their mother tongue.
5.
The knower goes and stand behind the student, whispers an
equivalent translation of the message in the target language.
6.
The student repeats the message that has been translated into
the target language and record his expressions in a tape recorder.
7.
Each student in the group has a chance to express his/her
message and record them.
8.
The knower always stands behind the students who are saying
their statements and translate their messages in the target language.
9.
The tape recorder is rewound and replayed at intervals.
10.
Each student repeats his message in the target language.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
BACKGROUND
Suggestopedia is the name of a
method developed by a Bulgarian scientist GeorgiLozanov. Lozanov, who was a
physician and psychotherapist, developed his method in Bulgaria and the method
was then introduced in the Soviet Union, hungary and East German. Suggestopedia
has been used in a number of Bulgarian schools for the teaching a variety of
subjects even though the principle area of concerns is teaching foreign
languages.
Lozanov method was first given
attention in the West in 1979. Lozanov himself came to the USA and trained a
small number of teachers in teaching foreign languages through his method.
Suggestopedia is the name
of a method developed by a Bulgarian scientist. The principles of the method
are derived from obsevations based on control experiments. The first is that
people are able to learn at rates many times greater that what we commonly
assume to be the limits of human performance.
Means of suggestions have
:
a.
A careful orchestrated
physical environment; an uncrowded room aesthetically pleasing, well lighted
furnishe with confortable chairs to facilitate a relaxed state
b.
The teacher is thoroughly
trained in the art of suggestive communication
c.
Music ; certain selected
music is used for special “concernt” presentations of material to be learned
d.
Carefully integrated
suggestive written materials
e.
Visual stimuli : posters,
pictures, charts and illustrations
The following are some of
the cjharactheristics expected from language teacher :
a.
The teacher should love
and master the subject
b.
The teacher should have
energetic, joyful, playful spirit
c.
The teaher should have a
well integrated personality
d.
The teacher have well
developed sense of authority
e.
The teacher should hve
balanced self esteem and esteem for others
f.
The teacher should have
well developed feeling for music especially classical
g.
The teacher should have
flexible communication ability to respond and incorporated
Procedures of
suggestopedia ;eventhough the suggetopedia is a method in general teaching. The
principles suggested in the suggestopedic lesson can be developed in a wide
range of techniques. The following is a procedures of suggetopedia in teaching
in teaching a foreign language. The introduction process in teaching a foreign
language mentioned above seems to refer to the nonconcious and nonrational
plane. The teacher attempts to suggest psychological barriers the learners
bring in their mind by providing a relaxed and comfortable learning
environment.
PRINCIPLES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA
The principles of the method are
derived from observations based on control experiments (Stevick, 1976: 42). In
Lozanov method it is believed that people posses considerable mental reserves
wich they rarely if ever tap under normal circumstances; it is also believed
that human being uses 5-10% of his/her brain capacity at the most
(Dorothy,1981: 25).
Suggestion can work well when the
learners remove the prior automatic patterns and open the access to great
potential of mental reserve. Without de-suggesting (removing) the patterns, it
is hard for suggestion to function.
Means of suggestion
To create effective learnig environment
there are several means of suggestion which are the most powerful and essential
for language teachers. This suggestion may overcome the anti-suggestive
barriers the learners have (Dorothy, 1981: 28).
1.
A careful orchestrated physical environment
2.
The teacher is thoroughly trained in the art of suggestive
communication
3.
Music
4.
Carefully integrated suggestive written materials.
5.
Visual stimuli: posters, pictures, charts, and illustrations.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE
Even though Lozanov does not
articulate a theory of language, the method emphasizes on memorization of
vocabulary and its native translation (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 144 and
2001).
The textbook in the suggestopedic
approach plays an important role. The content and lay out should contribute the
success in teaching and learning. The text usually consists of a lighthearted
story with a pleasant and emotional spot.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
Like other methods, the
suggestopedia also has assumptions about learning. Some of the assumptions seem
to be different from other methods; they are not only psychological but also
metaphysical. The following are basic assumptions about learning.
1.
Learning involves the unconscious functions, as well as the
conscious functions.
2.
The norms of the society often block the process of learning.
3.
In learning learners need some psychological and artistic tools
(Stevick, 1980: 239).
4.
Related to the second assumption, removing the psychic tensions
will accelerate the process of learning (Stevick, 1980: 235).
5.
Related to the consciousness and unconsciousness, learning will
take place effectively when there is a unity of the conscious-paraconscious and
integral brain activation.
6.
Activating learners’ imagination will aid learning (Larsen-Freeman,
1986: 77 and 2000).
PROCEDURES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA
Even though the Suggestopedia is a
method in general teaching, Lozanov suggests three principles of the
suggestopedic lesson in a foreign language: the pre-session phase, the session
phase, and the post-session phase.
The principles suggested in the
suggestopedic lesson can be developed in a wide range of techniques. The
introduction processin teaching a foreign language mentioned above seems to
refer to the nonconscious and nonrational plane.
Lozanov also describes the main
part of a suggestopedialanguae class. Suggestopedia has been criticized.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
BACKGROUND
Total phsical response (TPR) is a method developed by
jamesj.Ashers began experimenting eith TPR in the 1960s. the method has been
developed from development psychology, learning theory and language learning
procedures. He has been invited to present his succesful total physical
response approach in the USA and England, and other parts of the world.
TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a
biological program for acquiring any language. Based on the developmental
psychology, yhe proponents of TPR claim that memory is increased if it is
stimulated throught association motor activity and the process of learning a
foreign language is a patallel process to learning the first
languange(Brown,1987:163).
Many people believe that TPR is only appropriate for children
since the method reliea on imperatives. However,Ashers (1988:3-1) believe that
the method can be used to teach any foreign language not only to children but
also adults.
The advocates of TPR
belive that language learners should understand the target language before
speaking. Language learners can learn through observing actions as well as by
performing the acctions and performingthe actions themselves. Like other
methods, the TPR also deals with error correction. Correction is carried out in
an unobtrusive manner. The teacher dominates the correction. The teacher does
not delay the correction he/she will correct the error as soon as the error is
noticed.
Another assumption about
language is that spoken language is emphasized over written language. Spoken
language and written language are considered different. Eventhoghtasher does
not specially discuss the sequence of the skills to be mastered, the procedures
he has suggested implies that language class begins with spoken language and
written language will be introduced later on and speech has primary over
written language.
The following
introductory techniques of TPR are taken from Gracia :
1.
The teacher utters and
models the commands for the students
2.
The teaher creates
situations in which a student has to choose between two items
3.
With the introduction of
a new word
4.
The teacher introduces a new item by making very obvious
to the student what to perfoom either through gestures or other additional cues
5.
The teacher introduces
new materials by performing the commands on a cassette.
Total phsical response (TPR) is a method
developed by jamesj.Ashers began experimenting eith TPR in the 1960s. the
method has been developed from development psychology, learning theory and
language learning procedures. He has been invited to present his succesful
total physical response approach in the USA and England, and other parts of the
world.
TPR is based on the premise that the human
brain has a biological program for acquiring any language. Based on the
developmental psychology, yhe proponents of TPR claim that memory is increased
if it is stimulated throught association motor activity and the process of
learning a foreign language is a patallel process to learning the first
languange(Brown,1987:163).
Many people believe that TPR is only
appropriate for children since the method reliea on imperatives. However,Ashers
(1988:3-1) believe that the method can be used to teach any foreign language
not only to children but also adults.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACH
BACKGROUND
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a language teaching
tradition which has been developed in yhe united Kingdom in 1970s . Different
from the other teaching methods that have been discussed in this book, CLT is
seen as anspproach instead of a method.
The first concept suggest that language items are presented in
situations in the classroom to ensure that their meaning is clear, and then
practiced as formal structures by means of exercises of sufficient variety to
sustain the interest of the learner and in sufficient numbers to estabilsh the
structures in the learners memory.
The concept of CLT can be traced back by looking at the concept
of communication itself. The language as
a medium of teaching another subject .language as communication no longer
appears as a separate subject, but as an aspect of other subjects. the target
language should be presented in such a way as to reveal its character as
communication. Therefore,designing an English course,for students of sciences
,should cover common topics in basic science and language items.
PRINCIPLE OF CLT
To develop the procedures of teaching language teachers may
consider the underlying principles of CLT developed by different authors.
However, different writers have different stresses of the principles of CLT.
The principles of CLT will be more easily understood by
contrasting CLT with another method.Finnachiaro and Brumfit contrast the major
distinctive reatures of CLT with thoseof Audio Lingual Method. The principles
of CLT mentioned above cover not only the theory of language and language
teaching, but also the procedures of presenting language materials, the
sequencing the objectives of language teaching, and the language testing.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE
In Richards and Rogers view (1986:71) CLT has a rich theoritical
base at the level of language theory. At least four basic assumptions about
language are proposed.
1.
Language is a system for
the expressions of meaning.
2.
The primary function of
language is for interaction and communication.
3.
The structure of language
reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4.
The Primary units of language
are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of
functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
The four basic assumptions of language of language suggest what
aspects of the language should be thaught , how languge class and how language
competence should be evaluated. Different from traditional methods which regard
language as a system consisting of grammatical units, CLT regards language are
means for communcation and interaction.
The assumptions about language discussed above also have impact
on the language teaching. Traditionally, language class has followed the
tradition of procedure that starts from the presentation of language items,
followed by drills that are used to internalize patterns of language,and ends
with the practice on context.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
Richards and Rogers (1986) argue that little has been written
about learning theory of CLT. They state further that elements of learning
theory may be discerned in some CLT practices. The problem that language
learners are not yet able to use the languagevfor communication need
alternative techniques of CLT.
A principle that may be regarded as another assumption about
language learning in CLT is that grammar and vocabulary the students learn from
the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors. This
seems in accordance with the first assumption that the emphasis of
teaching a language is communication.
SOME MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT
CLT
Many teachers remain somewhat confused about what confused
aboout exactly understood that the emphasis of CLT is communicating by means of
the foreign language. Practically, the teaching of the foreign language is
often strongly associated with a number of particular classroom activites ,
such as problem-solving and pair work.
Thompson identifies three main misconceptions about
communicativelanguage teaching. Thompson argues that in the consensus view of
CLT it is now fully accepted that an appropriate amount of class time should be
developed to grammar. The second misconception about CLT that Thompson
identifies is that CLT emphasizes speaking and listening skills and ignores
written language. The third misconception is that the proponentsof CLT often
considers that role-play is the signal that the implementationof CLT principle.
Misconceptions about CLT may happen everywhere. Misconceptions
are really understandble since CLT is an open aprroach.different people will
interpret the principles of the approach in different ways depending on their
perceptions and experiences.
PROCEDURES OF TEACHING A
LANGUAGE THROUGHT CLT
Even thought little has been written abuot theories of language
learning underlying the principles of CLT as stated earlier, some writers
suggest some techniques or procedures in the classroom that can support the
goal of communicatievteaching.the following priniples are tips wroth
considering in communicatibe teaching suggested by
Larsen-Freeman(1986:128-130).
1.
Whenever possible
language as it is used I real context should be introduced.
2.
The target language is a
vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study.
3.
Student should work with
language at the discourse level.
4.
Games are important
because they have in common with real communicative events.
5.
Students should be given
an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.
The CLT classroom
procedure below is the one suggested buFinocchiaro and Brumfit.
1.
Presentation of a brief
dialog several mini-dialogs,preceded by a motivation
2.
Oral practice of each
utterance of the dialoug segment to be presented that day
3.
Questions and answer
based on the dialog topics and situation itself.
4.
Question and answers
related to the students personal
experiences but centered around the dialog theme.
5.
Study one of the basic
communicative expressions in the dialog or one of the structures which
exemplify the function.
The activities of the CLT procedure mentioned above seem not be
exclusive to CLT classroom. The
following is one of the basic procedures in teaching writing suggested byFinocchiaro and Brumfit(1983:151)
1.
Motivate the material by
giving a brief summary or by asking preliminary questions relevant to the theme
of passage.
2.
Clarifly and difficulty
3.
Review the procedure you
will follow
4.
Read the material
throught two times at normal speed
5.
Ask a question two times.
Some activites of the two procedures above may belong to the
other methods that have been introduced earlier.each of the four skills may
have different techniques even thought they may come from the same assumptions
Among, the many
activities which will promote our students listening,abilty are the following
(Finocchiaro and Brumfit:1983:138-54):
1.
Listening to you as you
2.
Listening to other people
speaking
3.
Engaging in dialog
dramtization
4.
Attending
lectures,speaking clubs, and other meetings
5.
Listenig to recordongs
6.
Etc
NATURAL APPROACH
BACKGROUND
The Natural Approach is a
philosophy of language teaching proposed by Tracy Terrel, a teacher of Spanish
in California. His philosophy, which has introduced in 1977, has been developed
by combining it with Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition. In the
Natural Approach the emphasis is on the exposure of the target language. The
exposure is often called input. The
natural Approach is meant to provide comprehensible input.
A similar method was known a long before the Natural Approach
was introduced. The Natural method was introduced at the end of the nineteenth
century. Even though it is named the Natural Approach, the approach not only
has assumptions about language and language learning but also procedures of
language teaching. The approach seems to be appropriately regarded as a method
or procedures.
Principle Of Natural
Approach
Like the other methods discussed in this book, the
Natural Approach has some basic
principles. The first basic principle is that comprehension prcedes production.
In oral language listening precedes speaking while in written language reading
precedes writing. This principles follows from the hypotheses that acquisition
is the basisfor production ability and understadingmeesages is the prerequisite
toacquisition. Some of the implications of the principle Krashen and Terrel
suggest are that(1) language teachers have to use the target language, (2)the
focus of the communication in language class will be on a topic of interest for
their students, (3)language teachers have to help their students understand.
The second general principle of the Natural Approach is
that production is allowed to emerge
instages.The stages seems to have been developed from principle of first
language learning : how a child acquires his /her mother tongue. The
acquisition of another language consist of five stages.
The third general principle is that the course syllabus
consist of communicative goals. The implication of this principle is that
language syllabus is organized by topic, not grammatical items. Krashen and
Terrel believe that by having communicative goals language learners will
acquire grammar effectively while they will acquire grammar very little if the
goal of learning is grammatical.
The fourth general principle of the Natural method is
that the activities done in the classroom aimed at acquisition must foster a
lowering of the students. This can be done by creating an environment condusive
to acquisition. The four principles mentioned above constitute the design of
the Natural Approach. These may also be regarded the assaumption about language
learning.
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT
LANGUAGE
Since no assumption about
language has been stated, some interpretations have bee proposed by different
people. Richard and Rogers conclude that the Natural Approach focuses in teaching, communicative abilities,
language In the Natural Approach is viewed as a vehicle for communicating
meanings and messages. This is similar
to the assumption of the CLT.
As discussed earlier, the
assumption suggests that language syllabus is organized by topic, not
grammatical items. Even though language learners are also expected to learn
grammar, grammar knowledge function as a monitor which makes changes in the
utterances we produced based on the acquired system.The monitor may correct the
utterances we have produced, which is often called self- correction.
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
The Natural Approach has
some basic assumption about language learning. The five hypotheses of Krashen
form the core of the second language learning theory that underlies the
Natural Approach. The following are the
explanations of the five hypotheses:
1.
The Acqusition- Learning
hypothesis
Acquiring a second
language is not the same as learning a second language. The two terms are
sometimes confusing to some people and some people are not interested in
distinguishing them in language learning. There are two independent ways of
developing ability in second language. Acqusition is subconscious process
identical In all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring
their first language while learning is a conscious process that results in
knowing about language.
2.
The Natural Order
Hypothesis
It may be argued that
language learners have similar patterns in acquiring a second language. Some
people may believe that different people have different manner in acquiring a
seconglanguge since people are unique, they have different language aptitudes,
levels of motivation, and other individual factors.
3.
The Monitor Hypothesis
The third hypothesis that
has also influenced the principle of the Natural Approach is the Moitor
Hypothesis. This is also one of the five hypotheses that Krashen has
introduced.
4.
The Input hypothesis
The fourth hypothesis of
Krashen , which has also become one of the assumptions about language learning
of the Natural Approach, is the Iput Hypothesis.
The input hypothesis
claims that humans acquire in only one way by understanding messages or by
receiving comprehensible input.
5.
The Affective Filter
Hypothesis
The affective filter
Hypothesis of Krashen has also been a
part of the assumption about language learning
of th Natural Approach. Krashen seems to have adopted thishypothesisfrom the works of psychology. He has tried to
explain what is meant by the Affective Filter Hypotohesis in second language
acquisition.
The affective filter
hypothesis seems to focus on attitudinal variables, which are sometimes
calledaffective variables in language learning. The proponents of the Natural
Approach believe that language learners with optimal attitudes have a lower
affective filter.
PROCEDURES OF NATURAL
APPROACH
Since the aim of the Natural Approach is
communication, language learners are expected to have ability in listening,
speaking, reading, and writing in the target language. The following are the
suggested procedure for teaching each skill for beginners.
Teaching Listening
Krashen and Terrel consider the techniquesdeveloped In
the TPR and the students do not have to produce utterances In early stages. At
the beginning, the students are expected to act out what the teacher says. The
commands are quite simple, stand up, turn around, raise your right hand. Then
the commands are continued by teaching parts of body. Lay your right hand on your
head, slap your left leg, first touch your nose, then stand up and turn to the
right three times, and so forth.
Teaching Speaking
Language learners begin to speak in the target language
by producing one or two words, they often begin to speak by responding to
yes/no question. In the Natural Approach it is suggested that language learners
are given opportunity to speak by eliciting yes or no response.
Teaching Reading and Writing
Terrel acknowledges that there is no natural
approach to the teaching of reading and
writing. Therefore the Natural Approach
almost has no principles or procedures of teaching the two skills. In
teaching reading and writing for beginners, the Natural Approach suggest
similar activities to thse of the TPR.
TEACHING ACROSS AGE LEVELS
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters different methods have been
introduced. Even though the methods may have come from different assumptions,
they may have similar techniques. In teaching a foreign language, it seems that
it is hard to use a single method all of the time. The suitability of a method
to a languge learner depends on many factors. The most common factors
thataffect the choice of a method are age, aptitude, second language level,
interest, the time he can devote to language learning, the size of the group with whom he practices the language,
and the culture group to which he belongs.
One of the questions a language teacher has in mind as whether the use of teaching
methods should vary according to the age of the students. Many people believe
that at particular ages students prefer particular methods. Some assumptions
about language learning related to age are suggested as follows:
a.
The teaching method that
entails sophisticated understanding and
reasoning by the students, as for instance the grammar translation method is
better for older students.
b.
The child is more open to
L2 learning in informal situations.
c.
The natural L2 situations may favor children. An important
characteristic of language spoken to small children is that it is concerned
with the here and now rather than with the absent objects or the abstract
topics that are talked about in adult conversation.
As suggested in the
assumptions above, the underlying principles in teaching a foreign language are
different from one group to another since the characteristics of human
beings may change according to the level
of their maturity. Consequently, a method which is considered effective for
children should be reconsidered or recognized when it its used to teach
teenagers or adults.
A.
TEACHING CHILDREN
In language learning
context it is believed that children will learn a foreign language more
effectively under certain conditions. Therefore , there are some assumptions
about language learning that should be
considered when teaching English as a foreign language to children. The
following are some assumption, to mention only a few , and you may purpose
another list of assumption of your own.
The assumption below are adapted from different sources.
a.
Learning should be fun
and natural for children. In order for them to be successful in learning the
target language, there must be the absence of stress. It is commonly believed
that the environment of the foreign language learning often causes stress and
anxiety.
b.
The language should be first
presented through sounds, not written symbols. Listening and speaking are
worked on as the learners produce meaningful utterances concerning physical
objects and their own experience. After children can produce sounds in the
target language and connect the sounds with the truth, they may begin to read
symbols in the target language.
c.
Children are more
sensitive to anything that touches the senses, they react easily to physical
objects. Language is taught by having the students use their senses, touch, see,
listen, smell and even taste if nesescary.
d.
Meaning should be made percebtible through
concrete objects or by the presentation of experience. When a language learner
makes a mistake or misconception of something, the teacher does not correct it
through translation but he/she tries to show something to make the meaning
clear.
e.
The idea that the
teaching should start from what the students already know in order to encourage
association proceeses seems to favor children. By teaching through this way,
children are expected to know what they are doing. They are not only saying
something without being aware of what they are saying.
B.
TEACHING TEENAGERS
The previous section is
concerned with teaching English to children and this section is related to
teaching Eglishto teenagers.As mentioned
earlier, classifications of age levels may be arguable. Different people may
have different classifications of age level and each category under a
classification may have a different range of ages. I this book teenagers are classified
as young adults whose ages range between twelve and eighteen or so, they are an
age of transition, they are an between childhood and adult.
In teaching teenagers,
the age level between childhood and adults, some assumptions about teaching
English to children still apply to teaching this group but some assumptions
about teaching adults may also work for them. Different from children,
teenagers mat demand to know the rules and the meanings I their language.
C.
TEACHING ADULTS
A method that is considered
effective for children should be reconsidered or redesigned whe it is used to
teach teenagers or adults even though there may be some assumptions that should
be applied in English teaching context
for all levels. Even though many teaching techniques for teaching children can
apply in some ways to teaching adults,
adults are believed to pose some characteristics that are different from
younger children. The following are principles, techniques or thoughs that may
be worth considering when teaching adults.
Adults have superior
cognitive abilities that can render them more successful in certain classroom
endeavors and their need for sensory input can rely on a little more on their
imaginations. Adults can utilize various eductive and abstract processes to
shortcut the learning of grammatical and other linguistic concepts.
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